For over a century, the undying genre of jazz has gone through a series of stylistic progressions. Some were naturally further explorations into new style possibilities, whilst others were prompted by social events and changes occurring in the music industry that incited a need for new representation and sounds. Nowadays, any music that stems from the jazz genre seems far from traditional forms, but is a change instigated by the music industry, promoters and media that has been necessary for jazz to stay alive in accordance with the changing tastes of contemporary audiences.
Jazz first emerged in the 19th century when it was brought from Africa to America during the time of the slave trade (Holmes 2006). It ‘grew as a fusion of diverse musical and cultural elements, galvanizing aspects of work songs, church music, folk songs, classical, and popular songs. The common thread binding these elements together is that jazz arose non-commercially as an expression of those who were oppressed by poverty and racism’ (Holmes 2006, p. xxii). Practising the musical genre provided a mode of expression, a sense of escape and belonging for those who had been marginalised in a ‘white’ dominated society. As Frith (1997, p. 110) explains, ‘music [is then also] a key to identity because it offers, so intensely, a sense of both self and others, of the subjective in the collective.’ Although, whilst their music had significance and made sense for themselves, even into the 60s, black jazz musicians were seen as a socially ‘deviant’ group – not only because they tended to reject the existing conventional music tastes of the time, but significantly, the difficulty in accepting their music also stemmed from the continuing struggle to put aside the colour of their skin (Holmes 2006). In addition, as Frith (1997, p. 120) illustrates, people may choose to endorse one music style over another because what music is to some might not be for others:
Jazz first emerged in the 19th century when it was brought from Africa to America during the time of the slave trade (Holmes 2006). It ‘grew as a fusion of diverse musical and cultural elements, galvanizing aspects of work songs, church music, folk songs, classical, and popular songs. The common thread binding these elements together is that jazz arose non-commercially as an expression of those who were oppressed by poverty and racism’ (Holmes 2006, p. xxii). Practising the musical genre provided a mode of expression, a sense of escape and belonging for those who had been marginalised in a ‘white’ dominated society. As Frith (1997, p. 110) explains, ‘music [is then also] a key to identity because it offers, so intensely, a sense of both self and others, of the subjective in the collective.’ Although, whilst their music had significance and made sense for themselves, even into the 60s, black jazz musicians were seen as a socially ‘deviant’ group – not only because they tended to reject the existing conventional music tastes of the time, but significantly, the difficulty in accepting their music also stemmed from the continuing struggle to put aside the colour of their skin (Holmes 2006). In addition, as Frith (1997, p. 120) illustrates, people may choose to endorse one music style over another because what music is to some might not be for others: ‘...taste and style [can] be explained sociologically, but it’s also a pattern that is rooted in individual judgement...people produce and consume the music they are capable of producing and consuming; different social groups possess different sorts of knowledge and skill, share different cultural histories, and so make music differently. Musical tastes do correlate with class cultures and subcultures; musical styles are linked to specific age groups; we can take for granted the connections of ethnicity and sound.’
 |
| Duke Ellington http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDQpZT3GhDg&feature=related |
Nonetheless, soon enough white artists were trying their hand at the jazz genre themselves and putting their own spin on it – for instance the big-band ‘swing’ phase of the 1930s had no meaning for blues and black musicians; ‘despite the prominence of black musicians such as Duke Ellington and Count Basie, it seemed like an ‘assimilated’ form, its audiences as well as its best-paid stars (like Benny Goodman) being white’ (Gelder 2007 p. 108).
 |
| Benny Goodman http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mJ4dpNal_k&feature=related |
Alternatively, when bebop emerged in the mid-1940s, with such notable African-American jazz musicians as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie and Thelonious Monk, jazz was pushed out of the ‘mainstream of American culture’ to its ‘original separateness’ – to represent itself subculturally as socially distinctive and nonconforming (Gelder 2007, p. 108; Bennett 1999, p. 603) (Example of Dizzy Gillespie’s musical styling’s: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09BB1pci8_o). Bebop ‘re-established blues as the most important Afro-American form in Negro music...and it also appeared to turn away from commercialising imperatives. White jazz musicians didn’t seem to understand it’ with some even claiming that it ‘[came] perilously close to complete nonsense as a musical expression....exploiting the most fantastic rhythms and unrelated harmonies that it would seem possible to conceive’ (Gelder 2007, p. 108).
Furthermore, Holmes (2006, p. 229) highlights that the history of jazz and the recording industry go hand in hand with one another:
‘Jazz first became widely heard across the United States because of recordings. From about 1920 to 1950, America’s most popular music consisted largely of jazz in one form or another. From early combo swing through to the big bands and the popularity of leading jazz singers, jazz was America’s most widely heard music around the world...’
It wasn’t until the early 1960s when rock and roll and top-40 songsters was on the rise that jazz reached its lowest ratings since the style first originated. The commercial feasibility of jazz was challenged as a result of, as Washburne & Derno (eds. 2004, p. 128) depict, a ‘...combination of the unpopularity of free jazz styles (largely due to their more hermetic and challenging qualities), the rock‘n’roll invasion (Beatlemania in the mid-sixties), and the rise in popularity of R&B and soul among the African American communities.’ As a consequence, record companies changed their corporate strategies and how they marketed their artists with ‘rock acts selling over 100, 000 units [becoming] the industry’s standard model, and one in which most jazz artists could not compete’ (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, p. 128). Although, notably, in response to younger audiences turning to rock, during the late 1960s fusion jazz entered the scene as a merge of jazz and rock genres that combined the dynamism of electric rock and intricacy of jazz instrumentation (Holmes 2006, p. xxv). The commercial success of influential fusion jazz leader, Miles Davis, with his recording ‘Bitches Brew’ (see link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fytOvlJ0MrY) in 1969, followed closely by Herbie Hancock’s ‘Headhunters’ (1973) (see link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hmVHhH96es&feature=related), led the way for record companies to adapt their approach to marketing and production to suit the jazz-rock-fusion style – a style that assimilated with a genre that was more easily accepted by the generation of the time (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, pp. 129 – 130). This also highlights how, in order to thrive, jazz had to move with the mainstream trends of the time and hence, signifies that ‘the antagonistic relationship with commercial pressure and the ‘mainstream’ was...a primary defining feature of jazz. But [not to forget], this relationship was at the same time cast in racial terms, since commercial success in jazz seemed...to be tied explicitly to the fact of being white...’ (Gelder 2007, p. 107).
Today, similar changes occurring within the music industry in the past are still leading to expansions of the jazz genre. The more traditional forms of jazz are virtually non-existent on major radio stations whilst jazz record sales barely reach 3.3 percent; taking their place is a plethora of pop, electro and synthesised music styles (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, p. 123). Needless to say, for jazz to endure and be even somewhat accepted into the mainstream, it has had to take on a few more modifications. Washburne and Derno (eds. 2004, p. 133) highlight that the history of jazz being inextricably linked to the history of radio has meant that jazz musicians have always relied upon this media for their survival; ‘airplay on...radio serves several economic functions for musicians. It advertises recordings, generates royalties, and it popularizes individual musicians, thereby establishing their marketability on the live performing circuit.’ Hence, nowadays the face of most contemporary jazz involves a blending of mainstream pop styles, which is not a new phenomenon. As mentioned previously, ever since rock and roll emerged, jazz has endured a relentless economic descend and in order for jazz musicians to amend this, ‘many opt for the solution that their predecessors have been using for years; namely that of turning to the popular music of the day and incorporating elements and repertoire from that body of music’ (p. 123) and, moreover, ‘...the popular music industry often employs marketing strategies whereby music on and from the margins...is co-opted, appropriated, and transformed into the mainstream’ (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, p. 131). Consequently, given the change in mass audience tastes, jazz is one such musical genre which has arguably undergone a major transformation from ‘high’ to ‘low’ popular music. The blending of jazz and pop, between so called ‘high’ and ‘low,’ has fuelled debates over artistic integrity versus commercialism with the common view that mass-produced products, or anything with mass appeal, is ‘culturally suspect’ (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, pp. 8 – 10). Conversely, this amalgamation of genres has been necessary for the audiences of today to listen to, comprehend and more easily accept jazz at all and, more so, for the genre to survive in a society obsessed with pop idols and pop culture (Frith 1997; Danesi 2008). As such, it would seem then that innovation remains a fundamental characteristic of jazz; ‘in order to move forward, new jazz is not going to sound like old jazz. In a global, cross-cultural society, artists find new ways of containing jazz within new musical contexts’ (Sutro 2006, p. 183).
 |
| Ava Leigh |
 |
| Sara Bareilles |
The movement of jazz into the mainstream does not stop at the fusion of the genre with popular music however. Nowadays the radio is not the be all and end all of how an audience can be exposed to and discover new music forms with record companies and producers making use of an array of various mechanisms. Video-sharing websites such as YouTube, social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace, and music video programmes such as Video Hits and MTV are just some examples of the new possibilities that are being used to promote and increase awareness of emerging artists. In all, they cover everything from information about the artist to tour dates, music samples, photos and spaces that facilitate like-minded fans to interact with one another and propel word-of-mouth (Hutchison, Macy & Allen 2010). The use of artists’ music in film and television provides a further avenue for musicians to generate public awareness and enter into the mainstream. Moreover, music can emphasise the emotion playing out on the screen and generate a deeper sense of connection and involvement to the story for the audience; ‘whatever music is applied to a film segment will do something, will have an effect – just as whatever two words a poet puts together will produce a meaning different from that of each word separately’ (Gorbman 1980, p. 189). Emerging jazz/pop-rock/soul artist Sara Bareilles had her debut single ‘Love Song’ appear in commercials for television series, The Return of Jezebel James and such hit movies as Made of Honor and All About Steve (Wikipedia 2010; MySpace 2010). Upcoming British songstress, Ava Leigh, whose music is an interesting blend of jazz, pop and reggae, had her song ‘Mad About the Boy’ feature in the successful film Angus, Thongs and Perfect Snogging (play clip from 2:20 for an example http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rzvmvCSQ44E) whilst her version of ‘Mas Que Nada’ featured in a commercial for English chain store Next’s summer clothing range in 2008 (see link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdJkY4UIgWA). Crossover jazz artist Jamie Cullum’s cover of ‘Everlasting Love’ also appeared in popular romantic-comedy, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (see link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f3tROimHbuo&ob=av2e), which also serves as an example of how jazz musicians often borrow from popular music through recording covers of already successful popular tunes and making them their own (Washburne & Derno (eds.) 2004, p. 129).
 |
| Jamie Cullum |
Frith (1997, p. 121) notes that ‘...popular music is popular not because it reflects something or authentically articulates some sort of popular taste or experience, but because it creates our understanding of what ‘popularity’ is, because it places us in the social world in a particular way.’ In essence, the industry moulds artists a certain way through certain mechanisms to signify ‘this is what is cool’ and ‘this is why’ you should listen to and follow such artists.
Given the ever-changing nature of the music industry, audience tastes, social beliefs and fads, jazz ‘continues to undergo a number of aesthetic and stylistic transformations [where it] is cross-pollinated by different popular styles. In other words, marketing strategies...may turn out to have a real impact on the actual aesthetic qualities of the music, and thus cannot be readily discarded as irrelevant by the self-pronounced jazz elite' (Washburne & Derno eds. 2004, p. 140). Nonetheless, as Holmes (2006, p. xxv) explains; whilst an abundance of jazz styles have emerged over the years ‘none ever completely abandoned what had come before. Nor has the history of jazz progressed mechanically from one style to another. It consists of a body of styles that are the source of continuing ideas and inspiration for every practicing jazz musician.’
References:
Bennett, A 1999, ‘Subcultures or neo-tribes? Rethinking the relationship between youth, style and musical taste’, Sociology, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 599 – 617.
Danesi, M 2008. ‘Music’, in Popular culture, ed M Danesi, Rowman & Littlefield publishers, Maryland, USA, pp. 121 – 149.
Frith, S 1997, ‘Music and identity’, in Questions of cultural identity, eds S Hall & P du Gay, Sage, London, pp. 108 – 127.
Gelder, K 2007, Subcultures: cultural histories and social practice, Routledge, USA & Canada.
Gorbman, C 1980, ‘Narrative film music’, Yale French Studies, no. 60, pp. 183 – 203.
Holmes, T 2006, American popular music: Jazz, Facts on File Inc, New York, USA.
Hutchison, T, Macy, A & Allen, P 2010, Record Label Marketing, 2nd edn, Focal Press, Burlington, MA.
Longhurst, B 2007, ‘Fans, production & consumption’, in Popular music and society, ed B Longhurst, Policy Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 226 – 245.
MySpace 2010, Sara Bareilles, viewed 25 September 2010, <http://www.myspace.com/sarabareilles>.
Sutro, D 2006, Jazz for dummies, 2nd edn, Wiley Publishing, Indiana & Canada.
Washburne, C & Derno, M (eds.) 2004, Bad music: the music we love to hate, Routledge, New York & London.
Wikipedia 2010, Love song (Sara Bareilles), viewed 25 September 2010, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Song_(Sara_Bareilles_song>.
Bibliography:
Bloustien, G 2008, ‘Up the down staircase: grassroots entrepreneurship in young people’s music practices’, in Sonic synergies: music, technology, community, identity, eds G Bloustien, M Peters & S Luckman, Ashgate, Hampshire, England, pp. 195 – 209.
Callick, R 2008, ‘Suddenly famous’, Weekend Australian 12 April, p. 16.
Conrich, I 2006, ‘Musical performance and the cult film experience’, in Film’s musical moments, eds I Conrich & E Tincknell, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 115 – 131.
Donnelly, KJ 2002, ‘Tracking british television: pop music as stock soundtrack to the small screen’, in Popular music, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 331 – 343.
Forde, S, Foxwell, K & Meadows, M 2002, Culture, commitment, community: the Australian community radio sector, Griffith University, Brisbane.
Frith, S 2000, ‘The discourse of world music’, in Western music and it’s others: difference, representation, and appropriation in music, eds G born & D Hesmondhalgh, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 305 – 322.
Holmes, S 2004, ‘But this time you choose! Approaching the ‘interactive’ audience in reality TV’, International Journal of Cultural Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 213 – 231.
MySpace 2010a, Ava Leigh, viewed 24 September 2010, <http://www.myspace.com/avaleigh>.
MySpace 2010b, Jamie Cullum, viewed 24 September 2010, <http://www.myspace.com/jamiecullum>.
MySpace 2010c, Joss Stone, viewed 24 September 2010, <http://www.myspace.com/jossstone>.
MySpace 2010d, Michael Bublé, viewed 24 September 2010, <http://www.myspace.com/michaelbuble>.
Scaruffi, P 2006, A history of jazz music, viewed 23 September 2010, <http://www.scaruffi.com/history/jazz17a.html>.
Tschmuck, P 2006, Creativity and innovation in the music industry, Springer, Netherlands.
Wikipedia 2010a, Ava Leigh, viewed 24 September 2010, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ava_Leigh>.
Wikipedia 2010b, Smooth jazz, viewed 23 September 2010, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_jazz>.
Wikipedia 2010c, Jazz, viewed 23 September 2010, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz#Jazz_fusion>.
